Self-esteem has become a household word. Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused on boosting self-esteem, assuming that high self-esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits.
Several factors complicate the appraisal of the effects of self-esteem. Because many people with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize objective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a heterogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept their good qualities as selfish, defensive, and arrogant individuals.
The modest correlations between self-esteem and school performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the result of good school performance. Efforts to boost pupils' self-esteem have yet to be shown to improve academic performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, although the correlations vary widely, and the direction of causality has not been established. Occupational success may boost self-esteem rather than the reverse.
Alternatively, self-esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory studies have failed to find that self-esteem causes good task performance, except that high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure.
People with high self-esteem claim to be likable and attractive, have better relationships, and make better impressions on others than people with low self-esteem. Still, objective measures must be more consistent with most of these beliefs.
Narcissists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventually. In addition, self-esteem does not predict the quality or duration of relationships.
High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in groups and criticize the group's approach. Leadership does not stem directly from self-esteem, but self-esteem may have indirect effects. For example, relative to people with low self-esteem, those with high self-esteem show stronger in-group favoritism, which may increase prejudice and discrimination.
Neither high nor low self-esteem is a direct cause of violence. Narcissism leads to increased aggression in retaliation for wounded pride. Low self-esteem may contribute to externalizing behavior and delinquency. However, some studies have found that there are no effects or that the impact of self-esteem vanishes when other variables are controlled. The highest and lowest rates of cheating and bullying are found in different subcategories of high self-esteem.
Self-esteem has a solid relation to happiness. Although the research has not established causation, we know that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness. Conversely, low self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression under some circumstances. Some studies support the buffering hypothesis, which is that high self-esteem mitigates the effects of stress. Still, other studies come to the opposite conclusion, indicating that the negative impact of low self-esteem is mainly felt in good times. Still, others find that high self-esteem leads to happier outcomes regardless of stress or other circumstances.
High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, or taking drugs. If anything, high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase drinking, but generally, the effects of self-esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females.
Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic interventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self-esteem in the hope that it will foster improved outcomes. Because of the heterogeneity of high self-esteem, indiscriminate praise might promote narcissism, with its less desirable consequences. Instead, we recommend using praise to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable behavior and self-improvement.
Self-Esteem Questionnaire
Instructions
Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself.
Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement.
1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. At times I think I am no good at all.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. I certainly feel useless at times.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
7. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Scoring
Items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 are reverse scored.
Give “Strongly Disagree” 1 point, “Disagree” 2 points, “Agree” 3 points, and “Strongly Agree” 4 points. Sum scores for all ten items. Keep scores
on a continuous scale. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem.
Description of Measure
A 10-item scale that measures global self-worth by measuring both positive and
negative feelings about the self. The scale is believed to be uni-dimensional. All items are answered using a 4-point Likert scale format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Reference
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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